Filtration & Centrifugation

FILTRATION â€Å"Filtration may be defined as a process of separation of solids from a fluid by passing the same through a porous medium that retains the solids, but allows the fluid to pass through. † The suspension to be filtered is known as slurry. The porous medium used to retain the solids is known as filter medium. The accumulated solids on the filter are referred to as filter cake, while the clear liquid passing through the filter is filtrate. When solids are present in a very low concentration i. e. , not exceeding 1. 0% w/v, the process of its separation from liquid is called ‘clarification’. Process of filtration: The filtration operation is shown below in the figure * The pores of the filter medium are smaller than the size of the particles to be separated. * Filter medium (for eg: filter paper or muslin cloth) is placed on a support (a sieve). * When slurry (feed) is passed over the filter medium, the fluid flows through the filter medium by virtue of a pressure differential across the filter. * Gravity is acting on the liquid column. Therefore, solids are trapped on the surface of the filter medium Figure 1: filtration Once the preliminary layer of particles is deposited, further filtration is brought about wherein the filter medium serves only as a support. * The filter will work efficiently only after an initial deposit. * After a particular point of time, the resistance offered by the filter cake is high that virtually filtration is stopped. For this reason, a positive pressure is applied on the filter cake (upstream) or negative pressure (suction) is applied below the filter medium (downstream). Factors affecting the rate of filtration: The rate of filtration which depends on various factors can be written as: Rate of filtration = Area of filter X Pressure difference Viscosity X Resistance of cake and filter The rate of filtration depends on the following factors: 1. Pressure: * The rate of filtration of liquid is directly proportional to the pressure difference between the ‘filter medium’ and ‘filter cake’. * Thus, the rate of filtration can be increased by applying pressure on the liquid being filtered or by decreasing the pressure beneath the filter. 2. Viscosity: * The rate of filtration is inversely proportional to the viscosity of the liquid undergoing filtration. Liquids which are very viscous get filtered slowly in comparison to liquids with low viscosity. * Reduction of viscosity of a liquid by raising the temperature is frequently done in order to accelerate filtration. eg: syrups are more quickly filtered when hot and cold. 3. Surface area of filter media: * The rate of filtratio n is directly proportional to the surface area of filter media. * Pleating the filter paper or using a fluted funnel increases the effective surface area of filter paper for filtration. Filter press also works on the same principle. 4. Temperature of liquid to be filtered: Temperature plays an important role in the rate of filtration. * Viscosity is reduced by a rise in temperature and the filtration of viscous oils, syrups etc is often accelerated by filtering them while they are still hot. 5. Particle size: * The rate of filtration is directly proportional to the particle size of the solid to be removed. * It is easier to filter a liquid having coarse particles than that having finely divided particles because coarse filtering medium can be used to filter liquid having coarse and hence it increases the rate of filtration. Therefore before filtration, some method should be adopted to agglomerate the finely divided particles into coarse particles or to increase the particle size by precipitation. 6. Pore size of filter media: * The rate of filtration is directly proportional to the pore size of the filter media. * The liquid having coarse particles requires a coarse filtering media to remove them. So, the rate of filtration is increased when a coarse filter medium is used for filtration. 7. Thickness of cake: * The rate of filtration is inversely proportional to the thickness of the filter cake formed during the process of filtration. As the filtration process proceeds, the solid particles start depositing on the filter medium, and thus, it increases the thickness of the cake and decreases the rate of filtration. 8. Nature of the solid material: * The rate of filtration is directly proportional to the porosity of the filter cake. * The porosity of the filter cake depends on the nature of the solid particles to be removed from the liquid. * Filter aids are sometimes added to the filtering liquid to make a porous cake Theories of filtration The flow of a liquid thorough a filter follows the basic rules that govern the flow of any liquid through the medium offering resistance. The rate of flow may be expressed as: Driving force Rate = ——————– (equation 1) Resistance The rate of filtration may be expressed as volume (lit) per unit time (dv/dt). The driving force is the pressure differential between the upstream and downstream of the filter. The resistance is not constant. It increases with an increase in the deposition of solids on the filter medium. Therefore filtration is not a steady state. The rate of flow will be greatest at the beginning of the filtration process, since the resistance is minimum. Once the filter cake is formed, its surface acts as filter medium and solids continuously deposit adding to the thickness of the cake. The resistance to flow is related to several factors as mentioned below. Length of capillaries Resistance to movement = ———————————————————— Poiseuille’s Equation: Poiseuille’s considered that filtration is similar to the stream line flow of a liquid under pressure through capillaries. Poiseuille’s equation is ? pr4 V = —————– 8L? Where, V= rate of flow, i. e. , volume of liquid flowing in unit time, m3/s(1/s) p = pressure difference across the filter, pa r = radius of the capillary in the filter bed, m L = thickness of the filter cake (capillary length), m = viscosity of filtrate, pa s If the cake is composed of a bulky mass of particles and the liquid flows through the interstices (correspond to a multiplicity of capillary tubes), then the flow of liquids through these may be expressed by poiseulle’s equation. Darcy’s Equation: Poiseuille’s law assumes that the capillaries found in the filter are highly irregular and nonuniform. Therefore, if the length of a capillary is taken as the thickness of the bed, correction factor for radius is applied so that the rate equat ion is closely approximated and simplified. The factor influencing the rate of filtration has been incorporated into an equation by Darcy, which is: KA P V = ——————– ? L Where, K = permeability coefficient of the cake, m2 A = surface area of the porous bed (filter medium), m2 p = pressure difference across the filter, pa L = thickness of the filter cake (capillary length), m ? = viscosity of filtrate, pa s The term K depends on the characteristics of the cake, such as porosity, surface area and compressibility. Permeability may be defined quantitatively as the flow rate of a liquid of unit viscosity across a unit area of cake having unit thickness under a pressure gradient of unity. This model relates not only to filter beds or cakes but also applies to other types of depth filter. Equipment is valid for liquids flowing through sand, glass beads and various porous media. Darcy’s equation is further modified by including characteristics of K by Kozeny-Carman. Kozeny-Carman Equation: Poiseuille’s equation is made applicable to porous bed, based on a capillary type structure by including additional parameters. Thus the resultant equation, which is widely used for filtration is Konzeny- Carman equation. A p ? 3 ?S2 KL (1- ? )2 V = —— ——- ——– Where, ? = porosity of the cake (bed) S = specific surface area of the particles comprising the cake, m2/m3 K = Konzeny constant p = pressure difference across the filter, pa L = thickness of the filter cake (capillary length), m ? = viscosity of filtrate, pa s The Konzeny constant is usually taken as 5. The effect of compressibility of the cake on flow rate can be appreciated from equation (1), since the flow rate is proportional to ? 3/ (1- ? )2. A 10 percent change in porosity can produce almost 3-fold change inn V. Limitations of Kozeny Carman equation: Kozeny Carman equation does not take in to account of the fact that the depth of the granular bed is lesser than the actual path traversed by the fluid. The actual path is not straight throughout the bed, but it is sinuous or tortuous Mechanisms of filtration: The mechanism whereby particles are retained by a filter is significant only in the initial stages of filtration. Some of the mechanisms are: Straining: Similar to sieving i. e. , the particles of larger size cannot pass through the smaller pore size of the filter medium. Impingement: Solids having momentum move along the path of streamline flow and strike (impinge) the filter medium. Thus, the solids are retained on the filter medium. Entanglement: Particles become entwined (entangled) in the mass of fibres (of cloth with a fine hairy surface or porous felt) due to smaller size of particles than the pore size. Thus the solids are retained on the filter medium. Attractive forces: Solids are retained on the filter medium as a result of attractive forces between particles and filter medium, as in case of electrostatic precipitation. FILTER MEDIA AND FILTER AIDS Filter media: The filter medium act as a mechanical support for the filter cake and is also responsible for the collection of solids. Filter medium should have the following characteristics: 1. It should have sufficient mechanical strength. 2. It must be inert; it should not show chemical or physical interaction. 3. It should not absorb the dissolved material. 4. It should allow the maximum passage of liquid, while retaining the solids. It means that it must offer low resistance to flow. The magnitude of the resistance of the filter medium will change due to the layers of solids deposited earlier, which may block the pores or may form bridges over the entrances of the channels. Therefore, the pressure should be kept low at the beginning to avoid the plugging of the pores. The usual procedure is to filter at constant rate by increasing the pressure as necessary. When normal working pressure is reached, it is maintained. On continued filtration, the thickness of the cake further builds up and hence the rate of filtration decreases. When the rate is uneconomical, filtration is stopped. The filter cake is removed and filtration is restarted. Materials: The following materials are used as filter media: 1. Woven materials such as felt or cloth: * Woven material is made of wool, cotton, silk, glass, metal or synthetic fibres (rayon, nylon etc. ) * Synthetic fibres have greater chemical resistance than wool or cotton, which are affected by alkali and acid respectively. * The choice of the fibre depends on the chemical reactivity with the slurry. . Perforated sheet metal: * For eg: stainless steel plates have pores which act as channels as in case of meta filter (edge filter). 3. Bed of granular solid built up on a supporting medium: * In some processes, a bed of graded solids may be formed to reduce the resistance to the flow. * Typical examples of granular solids are gravel, sand, asbestos, paper, pulp an d keiselguhr. * The choice of solids depends on the size of the solids in the process. 4. Prefabricated porous solid unit: * Porous solids prefabricated into a single unit are being increasingly used for its convenience and effectiveness. Sintered glass, sintered metal, earthenware and porous plastics are some of the materials used for the fabrication. 5. Cartridge filter media: * Cartridge units are economical and available in pore size of 100 µm to even less than 0. 2  µm. * These can be used either as surface cartridges or depth type cartridges. a) Surface type cartridges: * These are corrugated and resin treated papers. These are used in hydraulic lines. * Ceramic cartridges are advantageous in cleaning for reuse by back flushing or firing. * Porcelain filter candles are used for sterile filtration. ) Depth type cartridges: * These are made of cotton, asbestos or cellulose. * These are disposable items, since cleaning is not feasible. Filter Aids: Filter aid forms a surface deposit which screens out the solids and also prevents the plugging of the supporting filter medium. The important characteristics of the filter aids are: 1. Chemically inert to the liquid being filtered and free from impurities. 2. Low specific gravity, so that filter aids remain suspended in liquid. 3. Porous rather than dense, so that previous cake can be formed. 4. Recoverable Justification: The object of the filter aid is to prevent the medium from becoming blocked and to form an open, porous cake, hence reducing the resistance to flow of the filtrate. a) Usually low resistance is offered by the filter medium itself, but as layers of solid built up the resistance will be increased. The cake may become impervious by blocking of the pore in the medium. Flow rate is inversely proportional to the resistance of the solid cake. b) Slimy or gelatinous material and highly compressible substances form impermeable cakes. The filter medium gets plugged and the flow of filtrate stops. Disadvantages: * The filter aids remove the coloured substances by absorbing them. Sometimes active principles such as alkaloids are absorbed on the filter aid. * Rarely, filter aids are a source of contaminants such as soluble iron salts, which can provoke degradation of sensitive ingredients. * Liquid retained in the pores of the filter cake is lost in the manufacturing process. Example of filter aids: * Keiselguhr, Talc, Charcoal, Asbestos, Paper pulp, Bentonite, Fullers earth * Activated charcoal is used for removal of organic and inorganic impurities. Keiselguhr is a successful filter aid and as little as 0. 1% can be added to the slurry. The rate of filtration is increased by 5 times or more, at the above concentration, though the slurry contains 20% solids. Handling of filter aids: Filter aids are mostly used for clarification processes, i. e. , where solids are discarded. Different flow rates can be achieved depending on the grade of the aids. * Low flow rate (fine solids) â €“ fine grade filter aids –mainly intended for clarity. * Fast flow rate (coarse solids) -coarse grade filter aids –acceptable filtrate. The filter aid can be employed in either one or both ways. a) Firstly, a pre coat is formed over the medium. For this purpose, a suspension of the filter aid is filtered to give a coating up to 0. 5/m2. b) Secondly, a small proportion of filter aid (0. 1-0. 5% of total batch weight) is purposely added to the slurry. So the filter cake has a porous structure and filtration can be efficient. The filter aid of 1-2 parts per each part of contaminant is mixed in the feed tank. This slurry is re circulated through the filter until a clear filtrate is obtained. Filtration then proceeds to completion. The body mix method minimises equipment requirement and cross contamination potentials. Sterile Filtration: Sterile filtration is carried out for removal of microorganisms from fluids. It is a cheap and satisfactory method for sterilizing heat-sensitive (thermolabile) materials. The method implies the use of membrane filters which do not impart any particulate matter, fibers, or chemical reaction to the filtrate unlike unglazed porcelain candles, asbestos pads and other filters. In addition, no pretreatment is required, cleaning is no problem and the filters can be autoclaved or gas sterilized after assembly in its holder. Even when sterility is not warranted but ‘polishing’ (removal of particulate matter including live or dead bacterial cells in order to obtain high purity and clarity) is desired in products like oral or topical antibiotic preparations, membrane filters are the best choice. The following filters are used for bacterial filtration: 1. Candle filter 2. Seitz filter 3. Edge filter 4. Sintered glass filter 5. Membrane filter Candle filters: Candle filters are made of unglazed porcelain and are available in various porosity grades, either cylindrical or in the shape of the flanged test tube. Normally the filtration is so carried out that the liquid flow is from is from outside inwards and greater filtration surface is available to the incoming liquids. Candle filters can be sterilized by steaming, by hot moist air, or by autoclaving. Cleaning may be affected by drawing a large volume of distilled water through the candle filter thereby completely washing the previous solution from the pores. Thus the surface of the filter should be gently scrubbed with a soft brush, rinsed well with water and finally ignited in a muffle furnace. The main disadvantage of such filters s that the pores become plugged with organisms and debris which necessitate a very thorough cleaning. Sietz filter: It consists of an asbestos pad. The pads are available in several porosities that make them valuable for ‘polishing’ of solutions as well as removal of bacteria. Unless however the filter is backed with nylon mesh or sintered stainless steel: fibers occasionally get into the solutio n. The lower edge is fitted with a broad flat flange and the upper part is cylindrical. A perforated plate fitted into a lower part of the funnel supports the asbestos pad. As the pads are meant only for single use, the cleaning of filter media is no problem. Each time a fresh pad is to be used. The apparatus is simple in operation but suitable mostly for small quantities of liquids. Sintered glass filters: These are made of borosilicate glass. Borosilicate glass is finely powdered, sieved and particle of desired size are separated. It is then packed in to a disc mould and heated to a temperature at which adhesion takes place between the particles. The disc is then fused to a funnel of suitable shape and size. The sintered glass filters are available in different pore size. Hence the funnel with a sintered filter is numbered according to the pore size. The filtration is carried out under reduced pressure. These funnels are used for bacterial filtration. Sintered filters are also available in stainless steel which has a greater mechanical strength. However these are very much liable to attack by the solutions passing through them. Edge filters: In edge filters a pack of the filter media used and filtration is done edges by passing the liquid or slurry between and not through the media. Such filtration must be conducted under pressure or under partial vaccum system. Meta filter and stream line filter are two types of edge filters but the former is of greater use in pharmaceutical industry. Meta filters: Meta filters are useful in those manufacturing processes where filter presses are not frequently suitable. It requires no cloth, gauges, paper etc. and may be used at any pressure and temperature and for any liquid. It can be thoroughly cleaned after each operation. In its simplest form, meta filters consists of a grooved drainage rod or guide tube on which a series of rings are packed. On keeping the pack and finds its way along the grooves in drainage rod and ultimately to the receiver. These may be operated with pressure or under vaccum system. The rings are usually of stainless steel, of about 15mm inside diameter, 22mm outside diameter and 0. 8mm in thickness, with a number of semicircular projections on one surface. These pressure filters can be used for the filtration of very viscous liquids such as syrups or oils by fitting a steam jacket and rendering the liquids less viscous. They are also useful in the clarification of injection solutions and products such as insulin liquids. This type of filter can be cleaned easily by back-flushing with water or steam. Because of the shape of the pores in the ring, back-flushing will wash away the filter bed completely. Meta filters are very economic in use. Streamline filters: Operation wise and also geometrically, the streamline filter is similar to meta filter but the cylindrical filter pack consists of compressed paper discs. The liquid flow takes place radially inwards through the small space between individual papers and through the papers themselves. Membrane filters: * Ultra filtration methods have become popular in recent years mainly due to increased refinement of various membranes. Cellulose and cellulose derivatives are mostly commonly used materials for these filters. They are available in a wide range of pore sizes, ranging from 8 µ down to 0. 22 µ. * However, for sterile filtration, membranes with pore size of 0. 22 to 0. 45 µ are usually specified. * As such fine porosity of membranes may get clogged rapidly, a prefilter is used to remove colloidal matter in order to extend th e filtration cycle. * The filter primarily acts as a simple screen and retains on its surface all particles of size greater than the pore size of the filter (resembling sieving action). Due to an enormous number of very fine pores, the pore volume approximates 80% of the total volume of the membrane. * The action of the filter is mainly due to the combined forces of gravity and van Der Waals forces. * Membrane efficiency can be predicted in terms of its bubble point which is a characteristic function of porosity. It is defined as the pressure required to push air through a liquid saturated filter. Filter pores retain liquid until this point is reached. * Each membrane has specific bubble point which depends on the liquid wetting the membrane. An obvious disadvantage of membrane filter is their brittleness when dry and this makes handling difficult. The use of filters in cartridge form, overcomes this problem. * Apart from the small laboratory models, large models are available for p ilot plant and small scale production to handle up to about 25litres/minute of liquid through a 0. 45 µ pore size membrane. * Membrane filters find extensive use in filtration and sterilization of a variety of pharmaceutical products such as ophthalmic and intravenous solutions, other aqueous products, biological preparations, hormones and enzymes. In conjunction with a suitable pipette syringe, it is very useful in dispensing measured volumes of sterile fluids. * This assembly is often utilized for handling of pharmaceutical, biological and bacteriological preparations which can be damaged by metallic contact. Centrifugation Centrifugation is a unit operation employed for separating the constituents present in the dispersion with the aid of the centrifugal force. Equipment used for centrifugation is centrifuge. Centrifugal force is used to provide the driving force for the separation. It replaces the gravitation force in the sedimentation. Centrifugation is particularly useful when separation by ordinary filtration is difficult. Centrifugation provides convenient method of separating two immiscible liquids or solid from liquid. * Centrifugation is a separation process which uses the action of centrifugal force to promote accelerated settling of particles in a solid-liquid mixture. * If particles size in the dispersions is 5 micro meter or less, they undergo Brownian motion, hence they do not Sediment under gravity, therefore a stronger force, centrifugal force is applied in order to separate Two distinct major phases are formed in the vessel during centrifugation: The  sediment Usually does not have a uniform structure. The  centrifugate  or  centrate  which is the supernatant liquid. Process of centrifugation: The centrifuge consists of a container in which mixture of solid and liquid or two solids is placed and rotated at high speeds. The mixture is separated into it’s constituent parts by the action of the centrifugal force on their densities. A solid or liquid with higher specific gravity is thrown outward with greater force & it is retained at the bottom of the container leaving a clear supernatant liquid. The speed of the centrifuge is commonly expressed in terms of number of revolutions per minute. Theory of centrifugation: If a particle (mass = m kg) spins in a centrifuge (radius r, m) at a velocity (v, m s-1) then the centrifugal force (F, N) acting on the particle equals m v2/r. The same particle experiences gravitational force (G, Newton) = m g (where g = acceleration due to gravity) Centrifugal force = f = mv2/r Centrifugal effect (C) = F/G = mv2 /mgr (v = 2 ? r n ) c = (2? r n)2/ g r = 4 ? 2r n2/ g (d= r/2) = 2 ? 2 d n2/ g (g = 9. 807) C = 2. 013 d n2 Centrifugal effect, C= 2. 013 n2d n= speed of rotation( revolution per second of centrifuge) * d= diameter of rotation So * Centrifugal effect is directly proportional to diameter of rotation * Centrifugal effect is directly proportional to (speed of rotation)2 There are two main types of centrifuge used to achieve separation on an industrial scale, * Filtration centrifuge: Those using perforated baskets, which perform a filtratio n-type operation (work like a spin-dryer) and * Sedimentation centrifuge : Those with a solid walled vessel, where particles sediment towards the wall under the influence of the centrifugal orce Perforated basket centrifuge: Figure: Perforated Basket Centrifuge In this type of centrifuge, a basket is mounted above a driving shaft. This type of centrifuges are used for batch processes. Principle: Perforated basket (bowl) centrifuge is a filtration centrifuge. The separation through a perforated wall based on the difference in the densities of solid and liquid phases. The bowl contains a perforated side wall. During centrifugation, the liquid phase passes through a perforated wall, while solid phase is retained in the bowl. The solids are removed after stopping the centrifuge. Construction: It consists of a basket, made of steel (sometimes covered by vulcanite or led) or copper. The material of construction should be such that it offers greatest resistance to corrosion. The basket may have diameter of 0. 90 meters and capacity of 0. 085 meter cube. The diameter of perforations must be based on the size of crystals to be separated. The basket is suspended on a vertical shaft and is driven by a motor using suitable power system. Perforated basket is kept in a casing which collects the filtrate and discharges it through outlet. Working: The material to be separated kept in the basket. The loading of material must be done to give an even distribution. The power is applied to run the basket at speed of 1000 rpm. During centrifugation the liquid passes through the perforated wall and solid phase retaind in the basket. Uses: * Perforated basket centrifuge is extensively used for separation of crystalline drugs (aspirin) from mother liquor. Sugar crystals are separated using the perforated basket centrifuge. * Precipitated proteins from insulin can be separated. Advantages: * The process is rapid * The final product has low moisture content * It cam handle slurries with high proportion of solids even those having paste like consistency * Dissolved solids from cake can be separated. Disadvantages: * On prolonged operation solids may form hard cake. * It is a batch process. Non-Perforated Centrifuge: Principle This is sedimentation centrifuge. The separation is based on the difference in the densities of solid and liquid phases without a porous barrier. The bowl contains a non perforated side wall. During centrifugation, solid phase is retained on the sides of the basket and liquid remains at the top removed by skimming tube. Construction: It consists of a basket, made of steel (sometimes covered by vulcanite or led) or copper. The material of construction should be such that it offers greatest resistance to corrosion. The basket is suspended on a vertical shaft and is driven by a motor using suitable power system Working: The feed is continuously introduced into the centrifuge while the liquid (centrate) is continuously removed from an overflow weir inside the centrifuge * Solids build up during centrifugation forming a cake that must be periodically discharged Figure: Non-Perforated Basket Centrifuge * After the basket becomes filled with solids the centrifuge slows down and â€Å"skimming† (the removal of the top semi-liquid soft cake layer) takes place * Skimming typically removes 5 to 15% of the bowl solid volume * The bulk of the cake is discharged using a ploughing knife moving into the slowly rotating cake * The solid is discharged centrally at the bottom of the centrifuge * Solid accumulation is typically up to 60 to 85% of the maximum available depth * This type of centrifuge is typically operated at low centrifugal forces and has a relatively low solid handling capacity. The imperforated basket centrifuge is the only basket centrifuge commonly used for typical sludge dewatering applications. * High solid recovery can be achieved with this centrifuge even without chemical additives. Uses: Non-perforated basket centrifuge is useful when deposited solids offer high resisttance to the flow of liquid. Conical disc centrifuge: Principle: It is a sedimentation centrifuge. The separation is based on the difference in the the densities between phases under the influence of centrifugal force. In this a number of cone shaped plates are attached to the central shaft (which has provision for feed) at different elevations. During centrifugation, the dense solids are thrown outwards to the underside of cone shaped casing. While lighter clarified liquid passes over bowl and collected from top of the cone. Construction: It consists of shallow form of bowl containing series of conical discs attached to the central shaft at different elevations. The discs are made up of thin sheet of metal or plastic separated by narrow spaces. A concentric tube is placed surrounding the central drive shaft. Working: The feed is introduced into the concentric tube surrounding the drive shaft. The feed flows down and enters the spaces between the discs. The solids and heavier liquids thrown out ward and move underside of the discs. Low speed and short time of centrifugation is sufficient to give high degree of clarification. Uses: * Two immiscible liquids can be easily separated by continuous process after liquid-liquid extraction in manufacture of antibiotics. * Precipitated proteins in manufacture insulin can be clarified. Advantages: * Conical disc centrifuge is compact and occupies very less space. * By controlling speed of rotation and rate of flow, particles are separated into two sizes. * Separating efficiency is very high. Disadvantages: * Capacity of conical disc centrifuge is limited * Construction is complicated * Not suitable if sediment of solids form hard cake. Figure: Conical Disc Centrifuge Tubular bowl centrifuge: The tubular bowl centrifuge has been used for longer than most other designs of centrifuge. It is based on a very simple geometry: it is formed by a tube, of length several times its diameter, rotating between bearings at each end. The process stream enters at the bottom of the centri fuge and high centrifugal forces act to separate out the solids. The bulk of the solids will adhere on the walls of the bowl, while the liquid phase exits at the top of the centrifuge. * As this type of system lacks a provision of solids rejection, the solids can only be removed by stopping the machine, dismantling it and scraping or flushing the solids out manually. Tubular bowl centrifuges have dewatering capacity, but limited solids capacity. Foaming can be a problem unless the system includes special skimming or centripetal pumps. Figure: Tubular bowl centrifuge * This type of centrifuge can also be used to separate immiscible liquids. * Rate of sediment can be control by controlling the inlet rate. * The uses of centrifugal sedimenters include liquid/liquid separation, e. g. during antibiotic manufacture and purification of fish oils, the removal of very small particles, the removal of solids that are Compressible and which easily block the filter medium, The separation of bloo d plasma from whole blood (need C =3000).

Commercial Law Flow Charts and Notes Essay

You must take reasonable care to avoid acts or omissions which you can reasonably foresee would be likely to injure your neighbour- Who, then, in law, is my neighbour? The answer seems to be – persons who are so closely and directly affected by my act that I ought reasonably to have them in contemplation as being so affected when I am directing my mind to the acts or omissions that are called in question Donoghue v Stevenson Neighbour Principle: You must take reasonable care to avoid acts or omissions which you can reasonably foresee would be likely to injure your neighbour- Who, then, in law, is my neighbour? The answer seems to be – persons who are so closely and directly affected by my act that I ought reasonably to have them in contemplation as being so affected when I am directing my mind to the acts or omissions that are called in question Donoghue v Stevenson Reasonable Person Test – individual action or failure to act as a reasonably prudent person would under similar circumstances, resulting in harm to another Blyth v Birmingham Waterworks Co (1856) Papatonakis v Australian Telecommunications Commission (1985) That it is appropriate for the negligent person’s liability to extend to the harm so caused This was stated in Section 5D of the Civil Liability Act 2002 (NSW) and is consistent with the case of Adeels Palace Pty Ltd v Moubarak Other Tests: for a causal link to exist these elements must be satisfied: iii. Negligence was a necessary condition for the occurrence of the harm iv. That it is appropriate for the negligent person’s liability to extend to the harm so caused This was stated in Section 5D of the Civil Liability Act 2002 (NSW) and is consistent with the case of Adeels Palace.

American Government - Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

American Government - - Research Paper Example The U.S. subsequent involvement in Afghanistan may go down as one of the most controversial policy decisions in American history (Ginsberg, Lowi, and Weir). Indeed, there are a number of complex questions involved when determining the moral and political justifications behind the policy in Afghanistan. This essay functions to considers the United States policy in Afghanistan in relation to factors and issues affecting the topic, the current status of the topic, and future concerns of the policy. One of the main justifications of the United States involvement in Afghanistan is the belief that Al Qaeda’s attack on the United States violated the "just war" theory. The just war theory explains that only government led groups can lead an attack, but they must do so for a just cause. It’s been said that Al Qaeda broke the just war theory because they attacked civilians with no cause. Furthermore, the attack on the Pentagon, one could argue, was a government driven attack. The subsequent war represents the American response to the threat. There is no doubt that the American response had its economic and strategic interests, but the essential reason for the America’s actions following September 11 many believe is for the defense of freedom (Bennis). Supporters of the war in Afghanistan believe in the progress that can be made in defending freedom and democracy anywhere in the world. Indeed, freedom became after September 11 an all-purpose explanation for the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq. The wars conducted by the United States were justified as a response to the terrorist attacks which aimed the basic liberties of the American society. Freedom was soon perceived as an American good that must be promoted everywhere and the United States was seen as having the moral duty of promoting democracy throughout the world. While it is yet to be seen if the attempted change in the political system of Afghanistan represents progress, supporters of the war beli eve that democracy in the Middle East will eventually lead to progress. Even as the war policy in Afghanistan was initially justified as a means of national security, the United States’ longevity and continued presence many argue has proved to be problematic. While the war policy might have started along well-justified measures, it’s argued that it now carries a toll on the American population (Rashid). Within this spectrum of understanding there are a number of points policy opponents have raised. One important reason that individuals must consider is peoples’ safety here at home. While the War on Terrorism has been sold as fighting the terrorist abroad so they must not be fought at home, this seems a somewhat specious concept. Military recruiting is down. Young people do not want to join the Armed Forces when it is quite clear they could die in Afghanistan. This shortage results in fewer qualified members of the armed forces, and leaves fewer in America to pro tect against terrorism and attack. There have already been reported over 2,600 coalition force member deaths. That includes 2,463 Americans. Almost 18,000 military personnel have been wounded during the war, and thousands of Iraqis and insurgents have also died during the fighting (BBC 2009). This human cost may be the most difficult consequence of the war to bear. Innocent people did die on September 11th and nobody deserves the pain and agony of the terrorist’s terrible actions, but now it’

Analyzing and Comparing the Mise-en-scene of David O'Russel's Three Essay

Analyzing and Comparing the Mise-en-scene of David O'Russel's Three Kings to Steven Spielberg's Saving Private Ryan - Essay Example David O’Russell knew the power of setting a story during the time of war, thus he came up with the most finely tuned, eccentrically conventional film Three Kings. Both Saving Private Ryan and Three Kings have effectively shown war in a resolute way that serves similar aims but achieves this in different manners. O’Russell’s Three Kings clearly uses the narrative device of an ethical story to relate the Gulf War’s moral lessons as well as to rewrite America’s ethical position over the people of Iraq through revising what was viewed as a moral defeat. The film tells a narrative of a gang of four U.S fighters on operations at the Gulf at the end of the dispute as they find out a map to one of the secrete bunkers of Saddam Hussein, containing huge amounts of Kuwait gold, and plan to steal it for their own gains. On the other hand, Steven Spielberg has been criticized for failing to employ narrative action basing on the moral and national purpose in his film Saving Private Ryan. This criticism can be understood in the perspective of the constraints placed on modern cinematic stories of war by the Vietnam syndrome (Andersen 193). Even though Three Kings is developed around a definitely American-based fictional plot, this film typically aims to bring in issues concerning Iraq and addresses it to a certain extent as the film develops. On the other hand, Saving Private Ryan tries to reillusion American national distinctiveness in the wake of Vietnam by presenting a more distant past. The specific ethical justification for starting war and admitting its sacrifices and horrors is found in ethical campaigns against the Nazi plot of Holocaust. Through stitching the Holocaust into the movie, the film takes part in ‘Americanization’ of a memory of Holocaust, avoids Vietnam as a source of distressing memory, produces a redemptive national uniqueness, and constructs a moral usable past in the present. In both films, the use of ima gery has been clearly utilized. Saving Private Ryan starts and ends with a shot of a flag that is faded and desaturated of color. The red colors have turned to pink, white to gray, and the blue colors have lost their color completely. The flag is transparent, moving forth and back in the centre of a cool dusk as the sunlight penetrates straight through it. The reason behind this is that the flag symbolizes a lost time and a fading generation. The American elites who fought to keep such banners were gone and the film was developed for their sake. Such features show that Saving Private Ryan may be the greatest film ever produced about horror and heroism in war situations. It shows how heroic conduct can be unusually difficult, impulsive, lucky, instinctive, and deliberate, all at once. In contrast, Three Kings had mixed receptions on its release. In general, reviews involved praise for technical elements of the film as well as criticism of the way the Gulf War was presented. In the Wa shington Post, Stephen Hunter claimed the style of the film had the feeling second to none, as it re-imagines the past war movie post-modernly. He further concludes that the film was ideologically unremarkable. Similarly, Three Kings uses some sort of imagery in the storyline. At the start of the scene, a discussion goes on between Major Gates and his Staff Sergeant, standing near a helicopter. The image of a helicopter was used as an icon in this film, though not frequently used outside the scene (Andersen 194). At the beginning, when a shot cuts through, it is obvious that the positioning of the characters is to enable the blade to remain at the heart of the screen, right between the

Summarise Anthony Giddens' and Ulrich Beck's conceptions of risk. With Essay

Summarise Anthony Giddens' and Ulrich Beck's conceptions of risk. With reference to the wider academic literature in this M - Essay Example The current modernity is part of the radical break of the transition from industrial to a risk society. Humans must now deal with the global risks introduced by scientific and technological inventions that provide conceptual and technical tools that enable humans identify, quantify, and mitigate risks. The transformations from traditional to modern societies create fundamental societal evolutions that can provide guidelines during risk management. Beck (1992) outlines characteristics and differences between two periods that have caused the risk society. The first period is the industrial society that created a class society corresponding to the primary modernization (Beck, 1992). The second period of the risk society creates a reflexive modernity. The Post-war boom and triumph of capitalism after the cold war created a new form of social organization characterized by individualization. This individualization created successive crises caused by threats to health, economic and medical activities, and scientific environment. These challenges remain at the forefront of public debates and limit expert opinions and regulations (Beck, 1992). The challenges from the scientific environment led to the Chernobyl disaster and catastrophes in Toulouse and New York. These attacks and accidents ushered in the risk society caused by advancement in the field of social advancements created by science and capitalism. According to Beck (1992), the social transformation predominant in the western societies is one of the causes of the risk society. Modernization has led to technological and scientific progress as well as disembodied risks associated with modern technology. Advancement in technology has led to incalculability of consequences associated with the use of these technologies. This was evident during the cold war due to the military inventions of the Soviet Union (Beck, 1992). Western countries felt threatened by the weapons developed by the Soviet Union during the cold wa r. The western governments had to define enemy capabilities by estimating the number of nuclear warheads owned by the Soviet Union. The west had to pinpoint the targets of the soviet missiles and plan retaliatory attacks in case the soviet army launched attacks. These uncertainties and risks were caused by technological advancements of the modern society. Industrialization and scientific innovations had led to the development of long range nuclear warheads that caused tension between the Soviets and the West. Technological inventions pose threats such as cyber crime to the western countries. Information security is a major concern for several institutions. This has led to counter inventions that protect information and curb cyber crime. Huawei, a Chinese company, has developed hardware technologies that prevent cyber crimes to ensure data security for businesses and governments (The Economist, 2012). Globalization has helped the company expand its services from china to other region s in Africa and Asia. The company has since appealed to the British government to purchase its equipment. The government has the responsibility of protecting its citizens from some of the risks and receives blame when disaster strikes. The British signals-intelligence agency is working together with Huawei to test the equipment to protect the citizens against cyber attacks (The Economist,

Exchange rate diagram Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Exchange rate diagram - Essay Example In Figure 2, as the aggregate demand curve shifts from D0 to D1, the aggregate supply curve also shifts from S0 to S1 since the exchange rate is fixed. The increase in aggregate supply of domestic currency is usually done through the central bank intervention in the foreign exchange market. 2. The higher a country's interest rates, the greater the demand for that currency. ("Exchange Rate", 2006) When foreign interest increases, foreign investments are more attractive. As domestic people want to exchange domestic currency to foreign currency in order to earn more interests, the demand for domestic currency would decrease. Under the floating exchange rate regime, as shown in Figure 3, as the demand for domestic currency decreases, the aggregate demand curve shifts from D0 to D1, causing the exchange rate to rise from e0 to e1. Under the fixed exchange rate regime, however, as the demand for domestic currency decreases from D0 to D1 as a result of the increase in foreign interest, the aggregate supply of domestic currency must also decrease, from S0 to S1, as shown in Figure 4. ...

Paradox of Violent Video Games Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Paradox of Violent Video Games - Research Paper Example The incident at Colorado phoenix theatre is still a fresh news item in which, a gunman turned the new Batman movie into areal horror. In this particular incident, 12 people died on the spot with 58 other surviving with serious injuries. The three incidents indicate how people are willing and ready to turn fiction into reality. Although such incidents have a political or social motivation, violent video games play a significant role in motivating such killers. For instance, Tristan had been playing Call on duty: Modern warfare 2 before he went on a shooting spree. These are isolated cases of violence resulting or inspired by violent video games. It is a paradox that violent video games inspire people into becoming saviors. This essay will, therefore, analyze the paradox of violent video games in relation to violence and mass murder. There have been intensive studies on the effects of video games in promoting acts of violence among teenagers. Studies in this field have attracted variou s people particularly sociologists and psychologists attempting to find links between the video games and acts of violence, particularly among teenagers. Concentration on teenagers is necessitated by the fact that teenagers are the main consumers of violent video games and researchers are interested in analyzing the correlation between playing violent video games and engaging in real violence. Studies completed in 2002 at the concluded that violent video games did not motivate people to indulge in real acts of violence.  ... It is a contradiction that violent video games addicts do not commit real violence. In fact, all the recent cases of shooting rampage have a political or social motivation Flew (Terry and Humphreys 211). Police are currently investigating the Colorado incident to unearth the motives behind the killings. However, other cases such as the Oslo shootings had a political motivation. For instance, Breivick complained that Norway was increasingly becoming a multicultural and Islamic state. The gunman claimed the authorities were to blame for the acts. These incidents disassociate violence particularly mass murder with violent video games. The paradox of video games in relation to acts of violence depicts rivalry that exists between media and producers of video games. Media and video games are complementary pastime activities and hence they have conflict of interest. According to Shaw, the video game industry has become a soft target to the media and entertainment industry, which consider it as a rival (121). From the author’s argument, association of video games and real violence is a tool applied by media houses to win the entertainment market. This is an expected phenomenon considering that both industries target the same audience. Recent meta-analysis conducted on 130, 000 subjects concluded that violent video games induced short-term aggression and antisocial behaviour. Although the studies have a significant value of truth, they are subject to criticism and misinterpretation. For instance, the tests did not consider the sanity or the mental health of the subjects (Davis 123). In addition, the tests did not consider exposure to other triggers such as physical

Recycling Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

Recycling - Research Paper Example s a man makes impact on his personal and family lives at present, and threatens future life of his next generations, who will not be able to live the same life as this man does. To prevent such results, the concept of sustainable development emerged. This concept became popular in the 80-es of 20th century. The main idea of it is that a man should live in such a way, so that he will not prevent his future generations to live at least in the same way, as he does (Bartlett 2012). Some of the principles of sustainable development state, that a man should be careful with using resources, and should not just spend them irretrievably. It became important to find new methods to compensate and displace the used resources to preserve ecological system. The idea to process the waste products and use them as secondary materials became very popular among the supporters of the sustainable development concept. Thus, recycling became one of the instruments for communities how to get to the sustaina ble development path. Recycling is a process of reusing waste products and garbage or retrieving them back into operation. This process is considered to be one of the methods to restore all the waste generated (Tam 2006) The importance of recycling today is significant and is of global value. Recycling helps to solve ecological and resource-saving problems. First of all, the resources on the Earth are limited and cannot be compensated as fast as they are being used (some of them require the time of life of several generations). Then, when waste is thrown into environment, it usually becomes its pollutant. It takes several centuries for some materials to decay in natural environment. Besides, product waste and other products, the useful life of which is over, are usually (but not always) a cheaper source of materials than natural sources. Using secondary material resources can save the costs for waste utilization, new resource purchase, transport and labour costs etc. New jobs for

Sport Event and Tourism Management. Regeneration and Mega Events Essay

Sport Event and Tourism Management. Regeneration and Mega Events BRAZIL FIFA WORLD CUP 2014 - Essay Example The inflation challenges in the 80s are currently a distant reminiscence (Lanie 2007, p.10). This economic permanency has conveyed increasing living values, limiting heights of intense crime, at least in the greatest flourishing counties, and capital from the transaction of produces that are being traded to China as quickly as they can be distributed to the nearest harbor. With development only briefly affected by the 2009 crisis, the nation is now forecast to continue growing at some five percent per year for the near future (Gui 2012, p. 49). Brazil will be for the first time part of the global sporting events track, with Rio de Janairo its focal point with the FIFA World Cup in 2014 Games. Rio is at present Brazil’s energy investment, lying in an estimated oil bonus of up to 90 billion containers, and it is rapid venture in infrastructure, social housing, urban regeneration as well as environmental remediation in order to look at its best when the world comes in 2014 for th e FIFA world cup ceremonies (Knight 2008, p. 67). It is thus vital that the venues be spread throughout the nation to allow nationwide developments that comes with such mega events. The drive for the 2014 Games currently building with Brazil`s new president putting her weight behind the delivery structures (Weed 2008, p. 94). Rio is devoted to convey sustainable games with a resilient concentration on legacy. As a result, given the rule of common objectives, their concern in the London 2012 Games is placing British organizations in a better position to donate to delivering Rio`s determinations. Despite the fact that the world cup has displayed a black box model by the Brazilian national, government, and urban governments, the Rio 2014 planners have approved a more democratic procedure, with the promotion of a public national rivalry for the architectural strategy of the facilities of the media center. In addition, more recently, there has been the initiation of a worldwide architect ural cooperation for the sport amenities. There is an expectation that these tendencies might develop a more exposed setting for the argument of sustainability matters, also comprising the nationwide and global educational communities in the choice making and execution processes of the mega event (Tavares 2008, p. 82). Even though these beginnings have encountered with the perfect support of the architectural occupation, there is much to be completed at the more social level, with the participation of local communities in the organization and enactment procedures leading to optimistic urban regeneration. During the past two years, after the proclamation of Brazil’s winning candidature to host the 2014 World Cup (2008) and, less than twelve months afterwards, that of Rio’s winning bid to host the 2014 the country has lived a development of a black box’ model to the association and raise of both mega events, that only now arises to show some honesty to a critical analysis or the likelihood of a self-governing process to ensure the legacy of a justifiable urban regeneration of host metropolises (Hellwig 2012, p. 39). Black box’ is taken to imply a process of decision-making stages founded fundamentally in the work of governmental organizations to carry out trainings which defined the objectives and dimensions of public expenditures in the facilities for the sport mega events, without any

BSN - RN nursing Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

BSN - RN nursing - Research Paper Example The objective of this essay is to critically analyze BSN-RN nursing profession with regard to the nature, the scope and the qualifications required for the job along with reviewing the advantages and the disadvantages associated with the profession. The scope BSN-RN nursing is increasingly proving to be on a positive trend all across the globe. It has been estimated that during the period 2006 to 2016, a total a number of around 587,000 new job opportunities will be created in this profession (BLS, 2009). This projection within itself highlights the scope of Registered Nurses. Moreover this estimation proves nursing to be the sector to have the maximum of job opportunities in the mentioned period. The scope of the job is further reiterated as the in May 2006, the annual median earnings of Registered Nurses were $ 57280 (BLS, 2009). As far as the nature of the job is concerned, 59% of the BSN-RN nurses are placed in hospitals. The other avenues of work include home nursing and facilities like aged care and child care. In general, Registered Nurses work in Employment services, General medical and surgical hospitals, Home health care services, Offices of physicians and Nursing care facilities Florence Nightingale has opined that the role of nursing is catalyzing the process of natural healing (Nightingale,1860). The generic responsibilities of a nurse include treating and educating the patients on medical conditions and to support the doctors in the clinical practices. They also provide emotional support to the patients and to the family members (BLS, 2009). The records on the medical history and the treatment schedule including the diagnosis, symptoms, medical test results etc are recorded and maintained by nurses. The operation of the clinical machineries and relevant monitoring also includes in the responsibility of a Registered

Should Chinese Student Study Abroad Essay Example for Free

Should Chinese Student Study Abroad Essay With sustained economic growth in China, the option to study abroad has become more affordable for increasing numbers of Chinese families. For example, China Daily reported in 2007 that the number of students choosing to study abroad has increased by 11 percent over the last five years till 2007. However some problems occur when choose to study abroad destination, whether it is one-semester exchange or full-time engagement. Some of these problems include culture shocks and loneliness, language difficulties and financial hurdles. First, we will discuss the three arguments raised by the opponents against studying abroad. Second, we analyze corresponding counter arguments referring to research conducted by the International Education of Students (IES). Finally, the feedback from the alumni who experienced oversea studies will strengthen the stance on the obvious advantages of studying abroad. Though it is widely believed that it is beneficial for students to have an oversea education in developing students’ capacity (Bodycott 359), many opponents are skeptical about it. They claim problems of studying abroad are many, including language difficulties, homesickness and financial hurdles. In terms of language difficulties, they argue that most Chinese students have too poor language skills to handle the oversea life. According to Marilyn Renee (qtd in Zhang Brunton 126), the disadvantage in language skills directly influences the performance in academic activities and contributes to the lowered score of self-esteem. It is suggested that the students’ fluency in English may impact on cross-cultural relationship (Ward 544). In this respect, Toyokawa also finds that the poor English of an international student will result in a worsened situation of social interactions (qtd in Zhang Brunton 127). However, language difficulty cannot be a reason for Chinese students to quit international education. Firstly, most foreign universities provide extra classes or set up supporting departments to facilitate the language adaptation of foreign enrollers. Se condly, students may overcome this by interacting and associating with people from their native land or opt for a tandem partner. International students can also join clubs and participate in teams such as sports, drama and debate which all offer fabulous opportunities for learning a foreign language (King 1). According to the research by IES, 90 percent of the respondents state that being in a complete English environment forced them to learn English and helped a lot in developing a western way of learning and speaking. Another difficulty facing Chinese international students is loneliness in an entirely different environment and culture. A review by Toyokawa and Toyokawa (2002) demonstrated that â€Å"international students experience difficulty including culture shock, adjustment to customs and values, isolation and loneliness, homesickness and a loss of established social networks† (qtd in Zhang Brunton 126). The opponents also claim that Chinese students are from collectivist countries. They focus more on social networks than some of the individualistic western cultures. This may result in their helplessness confronting failure or frustration. Moreover, distance from families and friends and being situated in a different social environment and culture adds to their feelings of loneliness. Despite the truth of loneliness encountered by international students, chances are more for them to survive it. Suggestions are raised by Suraweera, an expert in the research of international students’ behaviour and psychology, in two aspects. For one thing, if students who study abroad put the best effort in their study and score a good academic performance, they are less likely to feel lonely but for a sense of success. On the contrary, bad academic performance may lead to depression which is one cause to stimulate homesickness. For another, students can seek new friends and new experiences. Through building a fine network with colleagues, homesickness is reduced by a large extent. In addition, engaging in a different experience, such as going on travelling or taking on a part-time job, will absorb students in more important things. With respect to intercultural development, the IES result shows that about 91 percent understand better of their own cultural values and biases. About 94 percent reported to make more multicultural friends and continue to explore a new culture. This result corresponds to the study abroad educators who often expect to train future global leaders to be more influential, respectful of other cultures and political and economic systems. In this respect, studying abroad is succeeding in its goal. The last potential difficulty is financial hurdles, which are often the biggest problem with studying abroad. Even for students on a semester exchange abroad program, the living expenses and tuition cost can probably add at least a couple thousand dollars excluding plane tickets and sightseeing. The opponents of international study hold the view that the expenses will never be covered and it is not worth the struggle. Nevertheless, while the financial prospect of a study abroad program can seem daunting, it is rewarding in the long run. According to the survey made by IES, a majority of participants give positive responses in terms of personal development. 96 percent said the unique experience increased their self-confidence. 97 percent reported studying abroad served as a catalyst for increased maturity and 95 percent stated that it had a vast influence on their world view. The data collected from the participants show that studying abroad is a critical moment in a young person’s life and continues to influence the respondents’ life in their future development. Moreover, Boycott (360) discovers that with an oversea education, a graduate can largely increase his chance of being employed. In summary, a number of Chinese students, pursuing higher education abroad, are reported to gain advantages while opponents hold different opinions against it. The advantages are shown mainly for students’ individual development if the opportunity abroad is seized and commanded properly. However, arguments against studying abroad are raised including three major ones. Firstly, the language difficulties can lead to the lowered performance of individual student, thus reducing the quality of overseas education. Nevertheless, most universities offer language support and the environment itself play as the impetus for language developing. The second problem lies in a negative reaction towards a foreign environment, which is loneliness. This can be addressed through network building and culture exploration. Lastly, the financial hurdle, seemingly daunting, cannot be an obstacle for the experience brings more to individuals in the long run than the initial financial input. The research conducted by IES acts as the major evidence of the positive examples for overseas learning. In a word, Chinese students should study abroad, despite the various opposing opinions. While more efforts are needed including overcoming the language difficulties and developing the personality that is flexible, adaptive, and it is clear that the efforts extended are well worth it in the end.

Models of Inclusion in Education

Models of Inclusion in Education Introduction This paper focuses upon inclusion as an international issue. It is structured in three basic topics. Firstly, there is a description of models of inclusion mainly implemented in the U.S.A. Then, there are presented the barriers for greater inclusiveness with some examples of schools from New Zealand, from the States and Northern Ireland. Finally, there are described some solutions, proposed by recent literature, aiming to overcome the barriers and achieve education for all. Main Body Defining Inclusion Searching through the literature, numerous authors describe the term inclusion via different definitions. This explains the various ways inclusion can be seen. A large amount of information has been provided through definitions for its purpose, its philosophy, its emergence as a rights issue as well as a social one. In this paper, inclusion will be examined as an educational issue and the terms inclusive school, inclusive system, inclusive education are used alternatively. As such an issue, it could be claimed that inclusion is about a philosophy of acceptance; it is about providing a framework within which all children- regardless of ability, gender, language, ethnic or cultural origin- can be valued equally, treated with respect and provided with equal opportunities at school (Thomas, Walker and Webb, 1998 :15). Inclusive education stands for an educational system that includes a large diversity of pupils and which differentiates education for this diversity (Pijl, Meijer, Hegarty, 1997: 1). Inclusive education is an unabashed announcement, a public and political declaration and celebration of differenceIt requires continual proactive responsitiveness to foster an inclusive educational culture (Corbett and Slee, 2000: 134). Inclusive schools are defined as those that admit high proportions of pupils with SEN (Dyson et al.2004: 10). The definitions above are just a small sample of the different approaches to inclusion estimated as an educational aspec t. Models of inclusion Changing a school into a more inclusive one is not an easy case. It constitutes a whole reform in order to have a lasting meaning for everyone engaged. This reform has been presented through some models of inclusion, which do not appear as panacea. They do have both advantages and disadvantages but tend to lead to a more reconstructed education. We could categorize these models to the ones promoting part-inclusion and the ones promoting full-inclusion. I will describe below models from both categories, which have been implemented in schools in the U.S.A. According to Zigmond and Baker (1997), self-contained classes and resource rooms in regular schools constitute models of part-inclusion. The first one depicts mainly a tendency for integration that has to do with the placement of children with SEN. The perception that they are in need of a different curriculum from their peers restricts their participation only to lesser activities. The teacher of the regular class needs a professionals guidance but the model still seems to be ineffective due to the low expectations the teacher has from pupils with special educational needs. The second one detaches from the regular classroom the children who need support in order to receive it from a special education teacher, who will teach them on obtaining basic academic skills or also on acquiring learning strategies. The results are dual because on the one hand the students self-esteem tends to follow an upward trend but on the other hand (s)he not only misses the opportunity to attend what the rest of the class is being taught during his/her absence but also there is incompatibility between the methods followed in the two classrooms. Having as a target to incorporate both special education and the pupils to whom it refers in the mainstream school, the two authors above suggest two full inclusive models: the Collaborative Teaching Model (CTM) and the MELD one (Zigmond and Baker 1997). In the classroom where the CTM model takes place, there is collaborative spirit between the teacher of general and special education. Through their daily contact they decide who will teach what, they teach together and they both aid all the pupils. As a result, the teaching procedure becomes more productive due to the fact that each teacher is responsible for a smaller number of children. Apart from this, a classmates support is also available to the child with SEN through the study- buddy system. As far as the MELD model is concerned, it is a broad reform as it engages the whole school in the inclusion effort. It encourages all children with learning difficulties to attend the general school no matter their performance. The special education teacher has a peripatetic role but the time he will spend in a class depends on the number of children with learning difficulties. There are weekly co-planning meetings but the disadvantage of the model is that the special education teacher has so many duties that (s)he has no much time left to pay the essential attention to pupils who really strive to attend the mainstream school. That is why their parents have to pay for extra tutorials or to choose another school environment for their child. Montgomery (1996) describes six of the several full inclusive models that can be implemented in a classroom framework. The first one reconstructs the traditional tension according to which interdisciplinary support was given in a separate class. Now all this personnel is an integral part of the class but can still offer more individual assistance when needed. The second one is a collaboration of coexistence of a general education class with a special education one of the same age. When that happens, two or more teachers share their experience and skills, one around curriculum and the other around support and vice versa so co-teaching becomes a fruitful process. The third full inclusive model encourages liaison mainly among general education teachers. There can be in a class a variety of special education needs, so the teacher can receive help from the rest of the staff teaching the same grade. Moreover, there is a timetable designed by paraprofessionals, who itinerate is it mostly needed. So, the last ones do not need to be there in a continuous basis but instead cooperation among teachers and group teaching can be a really helpful combination. Consistency is the key in this group. That means that when children move to next grade, it is essential the same function to be adopted so as to assure that there will be an alignment in the teaching method. The fourth model refers to older children especially ones of secondary education. Compared to the rest of the children, pupils with SEN have the opportunity of making three choices instead of two. So, apart from core and elective modules they can also attend support centre. The aim of this model is equal support to be offered both during core and elective modules and not let a child restricted in the resource room with just some visits to the regular one. To continue with the fifth model, there is a student support centre in the school, the scientific team of which not only offers support on an individual basis but also collaborates with teachers of regular class. This model offers extended contact between special educators and children as support is not only provided in the centre but also in the class or on a group basis but the criteria for success for success is trust among personnel members as each child is not one professionals duty but a whole teams responsibility. The last model according to Montgomery (1996) refers to adolescents with special educational needs who will attend for four years courses in a campus with students without special needs. There are meetings offering advice and guidance to general educators while the special ones remain close to the child by providing support for developing skills to achieve better contact with peers and participation to extracurricular activities. The key to success is the heads assistance. Barriers that prevent schools from promoting greater inclusiveness By proclaiming that every child has unique characteristics, interests, abilities and learning needs and that education systems should be designed and educational programs implemented to take into account the wide diversity of these characteristics and needs ( UNESCO,1994, p.p. viii) it is represented a tendency for promoting inclusion. Not only international declarations but also government documents and educational acts elucidate the multilevel importance of inclusive practices. To support this, emphasis is given on h3 educational, social and moral grounds (Tilstone, Florian and Rose 1998, p.2) of inclusion through the issue of equal opportunities and human rights one. The values of acceptance and limitation of discrimination of disabled people have given rise to the debate around their belonging in ordinary environments, and more specifically, for the case examined here, in an ordinary school. Despite the dialogue among governments, ministries of education, organizations, legislations, educators, (SENCOs), parents, specialists there still remains a significant gap between theory and practice. Prohibiting factors are social as well as practical aspects. When examining the barriers for promoting inclusion and more specifically within a social context, one should take into consideration the medical model and the individuals perceptions, which come as its consequences. In order to understand the impact of medical model on exclusionary discourses, it is of essential importance to think about the progress of medicine during the past century. The fact that a doctor has the ability and the privilege to diagnose, prescribe, cure and rehabilitate raises him in the sphere of authority. Vlachou (1997) states that the medical model is extremely dominant and it demonstrates its strength through labeling and its policy around disability. The medical ideology boosts its prestige through its success to penetrate in the social system and leaves people no opportunity for questions but instead it accepts the professionals judgments as they are. Moreover, it uses the principle of normalization in an ambiguous way. On the one hand, the use of normalization is similar to cure but a disability cannot be treated. A child with Autistic Spectrum cannot overcome it and become some day an adolescent or an adult without Autism. On the other hand, medical model tries to use normalization alternatively to equal treatment forgetting that equal: does not always mean same. (Vlachou 1997). Direct effect of the model above is the creation of tensions of considering disabled people as heroes because they manage to live in such an inhospitable society despite their difficulties. This decreases their self-esteem and their self-image and may lead to internalized oppression. Furthermore, another consequence related to this is the establishment of perceptions of each individual about what is normal or abnormal, superior or inferior. This has mainly been affected by socially constructed norms and values dealing with appearance but undoubtedly family plays a major role. Different ideologies, ways of upbringing and environments have a different impact on each person. Within a school environment, there is another significant challenge. Labeling is a situation that both disabled people and the advocators of human rights ask to be demolished. Even if a student is has a formal diagnosis or not, his observable behavior could ridicule him in his peers eyes. As far as teachers are concerned, their attitudes can also be a barrier for managing inclusion. They usually expect less from the pupil; they underestimate his abilities so he has a tendency for underachievement. (Vlachou, 1997). Teachers duty is not only to teach the curriculum. They represent one of the most substantial and crucial factors and have a key role in the school reform and its change into a democratic one. What was described above is what literature characterizes as social barriers for achieving inclusion at schools. In other words, the medical model, its effects of heroic images and labeling, individual perceptions based on predominance of beauty and educators attitudes are the social struggles for inclusive education. Apart from the social barriers there are also some practical aspects which arise in daily practice and obstruct inclusion. Pauline Zelaieta (2004) conducted an investigation and found some difficulties faced by mainstream practitioners on the way to inclusion. Firstly, teachers of general education are afraid of lacking the expertise and confidence to work on issues relating to special educational needs. Secondly, teachers in general schools lack time. They have a strictly structured teaching in order to provide curriculum, so this pressure permits no flexibility of re-instructing the lecture in a more suitable and supporting way, which can appeal to every pupils differences and needs. Other inhibitive factors were found to be the lack of leadership, organizational difficulties and financial constraints (Zelaieta 2004: 43). A review of the relevant literature has revealed that there are many commonalities among the schools regarding their unsuccessful efforts of promoting inclusive education to all their children. Purdue, Ballard and MacArthur (2001) raise the issue of warrior parents through their research. As such, are defined those parents who make any endeavour to incorporate their children in a mainstream school but they run up against the exclusionary attitudes of the staff who see these children as different and as belonging elsewhere (Purdue, Ballard and MacArthur 2001: 40). Indicant of the excluding practices is the unwillingness of the school to accept a child with disability and other parents attitudes. The authors mention that the evidence they collected about what happens in New Zealand at both public and private pre-school level is disappointing especially for those parents whose only choice is a rural kindergarten. In some cases the heads of the centre claim that they are not obliged to take these children in the school. In some other cases children with special educational needs were accepted but under certain conditions or provided their parents presence. Furthermore, they describe how the centre can exert control over the childs attendance of the school. The staff will not welcome any child with disability unless he has his personal assistant teacher. In case the teacher aide is unable to go to school, the child has to stay at home. It is also argued the need for resources such as materials, supportive staff and measures for accommodating physical access. That is why many children are excluded either directly (by telling the parents that they cannot accept him in the school e nvironment) or indirectly from the school (by informing the parents that they are positive about him but there is lack of resources). The research criticized as additional exclusionary factors the teachers limited knowledge about disability and other parents not welcoming behavior. So, the importance of parents advocacy is very vividly highlighted in order to ensure that their child will receive the expected education like the rest of the same-aged ones. Very frequently parents need to advocate even for the most obvious services to be offered to their child. But on the other hand parents face the dilemma of how the teachers will treat their child if they will put a lot of pressure on them and be too strict with them. (Purdue, Ballard and MacArthur 2001). Moran and Abbott (2002) examined through their investigation how eleven schools develop inclusive practices in Northern Ireland. Their findings acknowledged the invaluable help of teacher assistants but a significant number of them had scrappy education and knowledge about how to work with children with special educational needs. Some other had no qualification. Instead, they had significant experience. As a result they needed to be retrained and this policy was followed by all the schools participated in the research. This happened either in the school context or with a distance learning program. Moving on with the aspects stated as barriers for inclusion through their research, low degree of team work can be mentioned as one. Assistants role was defined mainly by the heads through the things they should not do, such as avoid being overprotective or playing a discreet role during the breaks. The results of the investigation above are in accord with the findings of a research (Gibb et al. 2007) which showed that barrier factors in the inclusion practice seem to be among others the personnels lack of knowledge, childs limited social participation and academic ability as well. Teachers interviewed admitted firstly the short of knowledge about what kind of teaching strategies to implement on children with special educational needs and secondly the fact that they were not skillful enough to exploit their potential. It is reported that it is of great importance their needs to be met. That is why the authors highlighted the essentiality of partnership between mainstream and special schools. Collective work and giving feedback for improvement can diminish the barriers. The curriculum can also be an additional factor, which in practice resists inclusion. It would be a wrong judgment to assume that certain teaching methods are accessible only to children with specific abilities or needs. There are no strategies to use as panacea, but creativity is essentially useful to promote a curriculum that all students will benefit from it. It is crucial not to perceive curriculum as means of promoting knowledge but as a chance to interact with others (Thomas, Walker and Webb 1998). Armh3 (1999) indicates another dimension of curriculum. The one that it portrays what is accepted through social practices and through the philosophy of each module that is taught. The curriculum creates a cultural space which is obvious from the language used to teach a specific subject, from the books, from peoples appearance and this underestimates their identities. The development of creative pedagogies can control what is being taught and destroy the authority of norms and tensions, which some institutions and teachers impose. Black- Hawkins, Florian and Rouse (2007: 15) define inclusion as the process of increasing the numbers of students attending mainstream schools, who in the past would have been prevented from doing so because of their identified special educational needs. Basic assumption to promote inclusion in regular schools is the buildings and facilities suitability for children with disabilities. Even though unobstructed access to school is a precondition for the child to attend it, it is very frequently too far from reality and this is another barrier for promoting inclusion. First and foremost, it is important the school to be adapted to pupils needs and accommodate its routine and not vice versa. So, a school needs to have an a priori inclusive policy- to put it differently, school has to provide for children with disabilities since its construction. The inclusive philosophy of a school is clearly important to be obvious and substantial not only in the classrooms but in every facility of the school environment (Thomas, Walker and Webb 1998). Black- Hawkins, Florian and Rouse (2007) describe some schools efforts while trying to change their image into an inclusive one. Kingsley Primary School was the first case study to be examined. This school had approximately 650 children when visited by the authors above, but provided no full access to the total building for children with motor difficulties as there was no elevator. As far as Amadeus Primary School is regarded it had by 2005 411 pupils. Although it is a really attractive school with light classes and colourful walls, it does not offer access to children with physical disabilities. The third school was a secondary one called Harbour Community. 1,200 children was the total number of pupils in 2004. This school, as happened with the other ones before, could also not assure the accommodation of children with physical or hearing difficulties as there was no provision for them. The small size of the classrooms was a prohibitive factor for wheelchair users and the acoustics of rooms did not help in order to attend a suitable teaching within a welcoming environment. Finally, the last case examined was the Chester Community School, a secondary school as well. It had a population of 1,300 adolescents, of whom 5% were diagnosed as having special educational needs. Comparatively to the rest of the schools inspected, this was the most inclusive one, but although there is a general tendency for promoting inclusion it has restrictions as far as accessibility is concerned. Some parts of the building are open to access but the unaffordable cost for the renovation of the school remains the main barrier. Judging from the data collected from a small sample of buildings, we are able to conclude that four out of four schools are unable to implement inclusion (even up to a point) and this is a frustrating rate. It is easy to consider that no matter how inclusive services a school may offer, the first and foremost that has to provide is unimpeded access. (Thomas, Walker and Webb 1998). Inclusion is discussed and suggested in an extended degree through national and international documents, for instance the Salamanca Statement, the Framework for Action on Special Educational Needs, the Index for Inclusion. The obstacles that prevent it from being established in school environments need to be removed. To sum up what was described above, we can categorize the barriers referred in literature into social and practical issues. The medical model is mentioned as social because of its impacts on disabled peoples life. Not only this, but its consequences do also have a negative effect on them, owing to viewing them as heroes or as deviant. Finally, teachers opinion can also be an obstacle to promoting inclusive education. On the other hand, as practical difficulties we can characterize these ones, which rise in the daily routine. More specifically, general teachers perception of lacking knowledge about special education, lack of time to deliver the curriculum as well as the curriculum itself, restricted access to school buildings, limited team work on the part of teachers and unwillingness of some schools to accept disabled children are the practical aspects, which promote exclusionary instead of inclusionary philosophy and practice. Overcoming the barriers Solutions Moves towards inclusion involve abatement of the struggles for inclusion. Overcoming of the social barriers can be fulfilled if changing the societys function by letting disabled peoples voices to be heard. Another direction that can be taken is the one of intervening to the social field of school. A radical change of the general attitude of the school is indispensable and needs to take place. The school is useful to act as a collaborative community, which sets no restrictions to its members to be part of it. (Thomas, Walker and Webb 1998). Segregation based on the criterion of ability needs to be eliminated and this can happen through teachers and peers attitudinal change (Pijl, Meijer and Hegarty 1997). Inclusion can be developed within a framework of assistance and support on behalf of teachers. Students can deconstruct the philosophy of exclusion by working into small groups to do in-classroom activities or by peer- tutoring. Strategies like these ones or as circles of friends or buddy-systems (Thomas, Walker and Webb 1998) promote an accepting philosophy in the classroom context and help collaborate under the partnership spirit. These actions are not by themselves the direct solution to the problem of inclusion in school level. The dimension of cultural change is the basic one to be reformed. The Index for Inclusion, which is a material based on the 1989 United Nations Convention on the Rights of Child and UNESCOs 1994 Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action, specifies the dimension of creating inclusive cultures. This dimension is about creating a secure, accepting, collaborating, stimulating community in which everyone is valued, as the foundation for the highest achievements of all students. It is concerned with developing inclusive values, shared between all staff, students, governors and parents/ carers that are conveyed to all new members of the school (Booth et al. 2000: 45). As a result, new cultures affect society in general and school community in particular. In that way teachers are willing to design new teaching approaches so as to respect every pupils needs, differences and abilities and st udents are willing to respond to that pedagogy. This is the first step to move on providing solutions for the practical barriers which were analyzed before. Taking the attitudinal and cultural change for granted, this can positively affect alternative ways for the curriculum delivery. For instance, students arrangement into groups, use of innovative materials, brand-new lesson format and interesting tasks differentiated by activities can create an active learning environment. The achievement of goals can happen through supportive relationships and mixed groups in which ones abilities will accommodate others needs. Focus on the whole classroom instead of individuals separately can promote the delivery of an inclusive curriculum (Thomas, Walker and Webb 1998). If educators plan their teaching, if they offer group activities employing curricular differentiation and if there is mutual respect inclusion can undoubtedly be promoted. (Gibb et al.2007). Producing inclusive policies is a second dimension mentioned in the Index for Inclusion, which is about securing inclusion at the heart of school development, permeating all policies, so that they increase the learning and participation of all students. All forms of support are brought together within a single framework and are viewed from the perspective of students and their development rather than school or local education authority administrative structures (Booth et al. 2000: 45). A school for all is the one, which can firstly offer physical access to its pupils. Then, it supports them not only by making the use of buildings comfortable but also by offering psychological support. For instance, by aiding new students to adapt to the new environment or by representing their educational needs and create small peer-groups during teaching so that everyone can benefit from it. Inclusive policy supports diversity in multiple ways. That can happen by supporting activities for students w ith special needs or for those whose native language is not the same as the rest of the pupils. (Booth et al.2000). After examining the theoretical part of what is inclusive policy, it is essential to discuss how a sample of schools implements those policies. Kingsley Primary School had a high level (60%) of children for whom English was an additional language and about 15% of pupils with special needs. The school had a clearly admission policy and tried to respond to pupils needs. For that reason, the school had some facilities corrected and removed some of the barriers regarding participation and access. Implementing inclusive policy according to the Index, urged Kingsley School to support all children needed aid in learning. To do it successfully, they arranged some teaching groups. Gifted children, pupils with discipline problems or with problems on using the local language attended some lessons in separate classrooms and finally they had the ability to attend the curriculum in their class with their peers. (Black-Hawkins, Florian and Rouse 2007). Although the policy of Amadeus Primary School regarding accessibility is not that inclusive, the school provides low dado rails to support children with visual impairments and a hearing induction loop system (Black- Hawkins, Florian and Rouse 2007 :72). It embraces all new children and a peer mentor is responsible for each one of them especially for the first-day-difficulties. As far as children identified as having learning difficulties are concerned, their needs are met by planning their homework. The last dimension of inclusion explored by the Index is about developing inclusive practices and is defined as reflecting the inclusive cultures and policies of the school. It is concerned with ensuring that classroom and extra-curricular activities encourage the participation of all students and draw on their knowledge and experience outside school. Teaching and support are integrated together in the orchestration of learning and the overcoming of barriers to learning and participation. Staff mobilizes resources within the school and local communities to sustain active learning for all (Booth et al.2000: 45). So, barriers discussed above such as lack of time or lack of leadership and tem work can be removed. The Index for Inclusion suggests the creation of a coordinating group, the head of which will raise staffs knowledge about its purposes. Acting not as an expert but as a consultant s/he can collect information about staffs and parents opinion on what are the real priorities and aspects for change. After the collection of evidence, further discussion follows on arranging a development plan, which will be monitored via meetings, councils, debates. (Booth et al.2000). After that, everyones duties will be reassigned. The teacher will know what s/he has to do, the teacher assistant will have a clearer idea about his/ her role and his/her performance within the classroom, the SENCO, the planning team, the senior staff and the head teacher will be able to work in a new, much more organized and closely monitored context. In that way, lack of leadership and organization and lack of time stop acting restrictively against inclusion. Collaborative work is highly promoted in the framework of inclusive culture. Moving towards inclusive practice, team work acts as a basic assumption, not only among staff members but also among them and the parents/ carers. Good interaction of those involving in inclusion and respect to each others knowledge and experiences are the keys for their efficient partnership (Armh3 and Moore 2004). Lack of specialist knowledge was referred to a great extent as a prohibitive factor for inclusion. Liaison of special and general schools seems to be really effective. The first ones can train the general educators and provide them suitable material for using while teaching children with SEN. They can also equip them with strategies and ideas for adapting the curriculum to their diversities and the teaching time can be better administered (Cheminais 2003). Collaborative engagement, value others opinions, active listening and working with a plan in a monitored context, as proposed by the Index, can be the right solutions to the barriers for inclusion. In a school that finally decides to implement and promote inclusive practices there is an atmosphere of collaboration, students learn from each other, children support one another regardless of the group activities and they have attitudes of respect and acceptance. Children use their resources as well as staffs expertise to reinforce inclusion. (Booth et al.2000; Black-Hawkins, Florian and Rouse 2007). After having discussed the three dimensions for achieving inclusion (inclusive cultures, policies and practices), it is difficult to say which comes first. None of these separately can provide that high results as when co-existing and acting as one. To p

Human Resource (HRM) Planning in Health Organization

Human Resource (HRM) Planning in Health Organization Strategic Human Resource Management Business Growth The factor of Human Resource Planning in Health Organization is this factor describes the basic service that is provided by health resources department to the operating system of the organization to the health sector human resource management will have a difference in business become without the conviction of human resource management it will not make a difference. By the influence of business human resource planning in healthcare organization people can be motivated to drive the human resource management the business growth performance level, it can build the employee commitment by using the human resource practices. Human resource practices have 3 major in general, these three are (1) They have to build some new capabilities of the organization critically (2) The satisfaction of the employee have to be enhance (3) The shareholder and costumer mainly have to improve the satisfaction. Decline Human Resource Management in healthcare in decline is they must engaged a core group strategies, strategies that will enhance the human resource, to do this is the human resource management must raise their profile issue base on the conceptual and must improve and also the decision makers must be statistically available as evidence. Human Resource Management in healthcare through the global human resources crisis the community will be the one to respond t the growing health crises in developing countries, which will trigger the responds to focused on the mobilizing of the financial status of the resources and the increased access to all essential medicine, however the most important in the healthcare system is the people that will make them work which is the most important aspect and later on it will be tackled. The human resource for health personnel will be the one responsible to deliver in health publicity not only clinically but also the environmental services are decline and des troy much for developing. However the mobility demand and the issues of supply are central to human resource problem, namely local transnational and regional. Human Resource Management Health workforce, change, competition/challenge The healthcare delivery system is a very highly labour intensive, in so far for the health worker performance or the most function of mediate health system are very central for the health system of human resources to be more continuously more effective, the healthcare system of human resource must have a mixed Healthcare worker and a right number of healthcare worker and also they have to be ensure they possess the skilful worker and also they have to be ensure that they possess the skilful worker in order to perform the function very well of what he has assigned to do for, and have the means of motivation. There are three dimension where the Human Resource management are involved, because of the many countries now are facing the crisis. These dimensions are: Performance – this is the care with quality that a health workers can provide which will relate to the health workers productivity Distribution – this is where the presence of a health worker is most needed which relate to the retirement and recruitment. Availability – this is only relates to the qualified health worker which are supplied. Labour Market competition and employee development. First let’s define what a labour market is, what is a market and what is labour. Well a market let say is a kind of structure where the sellers and buyers are allowed to exchange goods, information or services of any type. While on the other hand labour market is a kind of structure where they allow the labour services to be bought and sold. For the labour market for the combination between labour and market are also in different terms, specifically labour market are those employ staff who seek to employ are called buyers and for those who are seeking for employment are the ones called the sellers. The well-functioning of a labour market in compensation or wages – it can be understand by a overall return for an employment particularly not only in the financial component but this is also will act as the mechanism to what the buyers intension and the seizures will be reconciled. Tends to be the demands and also the supply of labour are towards to the equilibrium. They are said to be clear, that is labour market only when the supply of the labour will matched to demand to the workers. However being clear to the labour market are not always in the way. If they are going to fail to do so. They will going to exhibit either or neither employments or labour surplus. The system will very dynamic when it becomes to health labour system it compromise two distinct but its closely related to the economic forces for such workers and for the demand of the supply health workers. In the tradition the human resource management analysis for supply crisis have been only framed to receive scant attention with the demand side factors. Human Resource Management planning in a healthcare organisation Identifying internal personnel requirements , internal and external factors in matching personnel to organisational requirements; government policies and labour market competition. In my research the human resource business management in healthcare founded to be divided in three cluster these are (1) internally operating measures (2) internally have the strategic plan measures (3) externally operating measures these three cluster are said to be to help the function of the human resource management and drives the business contribution in better view. For the cluster one which is the internally operating measures is that this cluster is emphasis more on the traditional way of human resource management measure for because human resource function here and the human resource professionals are held for their accountable, they more focus on the quality, efficiency and the speed of the delivering process of human resource practices and the human resource management will function as a whole, while the cluster two the internally strategic measures human resource in the way of how they build the organization capabilities and enhancement of employee satisfaction and last ly the third cluster is the external strategic measures this are cluster will be assessing the external strategic measures this cluster will be assessing the effectiveness of the human resource management practices on how the shareholder and customers are satisfied, the purpose of this is to drive the shareholder and the customers satisfaction. The health labour better policies and market analysis comparatively in a study implications of government in the Dominican republic are analytically analyse the wage bills policies for the workforce of the healthcare, There are four countries who are implementing the general government wage bills policies restriction, these countries are Dominican republic, Zambia and Rwanda and they also study the purpose of those policies and the effects on the strategy of human resource management for expanding or maintaining the workforce. The demand health for the workers for the country are determine by the government, private sector and multinational sector corporations and donors are willing to pay them just to hire them. Electronic Sources http://books.google.co.nz/books?hl=enlr=id=dmrfCCL3GeUCoi=fndpg=PR5dq=change+in+human+resource+management+in+healthcareots=VWu5sOrJDMsig=El5Y1DmlXx-7TM2yU_XBB5qx6Vo#v=onepageq=change%20in%20human%20resource%20management%20in%20healthcaref=false http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/34580/4_ftp.pdf?sequence=1 http://www.who.int/bulletin/volumes/91/11/13-118794/en/ http://books.google.co.nz/books?hl=enlr=id=hRawAAAAQBAJoi=fndpg=PR1dq=human+resource+management+in+healthcareots=FwE5dbwZWesig=Hb81jtCzXI5DVpDtnsRulrS-c8g#v=onepageq=human%20resource%20management%20in%20healthcaref=false http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_human_resources 1